In the months following the Armistice, the Sultan, grand vizier and military-civilian bureaucrats in Istanbul could not achieve any positive outcomes from their meetings and negotiations with the Allied powers. The armistice was being interpreted to the detriment of the Ottoman Empire, and the occupations were expanding. Although it was claimed that the war had ended, military operations were still ongoing. While Turkey’s allies – Germany, Austria and Bulgaria – were not occupied, the Ottoman homeland was. The political intentions of the Allied powers had become clear. They sought to dismantle Türkiye’s physical and military capacity to resist a harsh peace treaty. Although the Ottoman state was complying with the armistice conditions to the greatest extent possible, it was becoming evident that the country and its army were being deliberately incapacitated, stripped of their ability and means to defend themselves.
Even the developments of the first month of the armistice revealed a great deal: demobilization had begun in the army; the Caucasus and the Hejaz were being evacuated; the Straits, Mosul, Iskenderun and Baku were occupied; the Allied navy had entered Istanbul; and in violation of the armistice, troops were landed onshore and the capital was effectively occupied. The evacuation of Adana, Kars, Ardahan and Batumi was demanded, the return of Allied prisoners of war was brought up, and wireless and telegraph stations as well as railways came under the control of Allied soldiers. The Ottoman navy and air forces were seized.
There was a clear intention to eliminate the possibility of the Ottoman state rejecting the peace treaty. While the government continued its pursuit of conciliatory, political and diplomatic solutions, senior Ottoman commanders held discussions and meetings on the necessity of launching a renewed resistance movement from Anatolia in anticipation of the occupation of Istanbul.
Ali Fuat Pasha (Cebesoy) wrote that in December 1918, they had outlined the fundamentals of military resistance at Mustafa Kemal Pasha’s house in Şişli. Former Education Minister Şükrü Bey, rejecting the sense of helplessness conveyed by the idea that “there is no other choice,” stated that “there is a solution: retreat to Anatolia and resist,” and noted that he had learned in November 1918 that the government had begun preparing for guerrilla warfare. Beyond the individual ideas and efforts of military and civilian figures, the Ottoman General Staff as an institution also considered it necessary to launch an armed struggle in Anatolia.
Oath of 3 pashas
The decisions historically referred to as the “Pact of the Three” (“Üçler Misakı”) were taken by the War Minister Hafız Şevket Turgut Pasha, Chief of the General Staff Cevat (Çobanlı) Pasha and Fevzi (Çakmak) Pasha. After long negotiations, the decisions they swore to implement were as follows:
- The immediate establishment of three army inspectorates and reorganizing the army’s command structure. The First Inspectorate would be in Istanbul under the command of Fevzi Pasha. The Second Inspectorate would be in Konya, commanded by Mersinli Cemal Pasha. The Third Inspectorate would be in Erzurum, commanded by Mustafa Kemal Pasha.
- The collection of as many weapons and munitions as possible in Anatolia and the refusal to hand them over to the Allied powers.
- Since the Istanbul government was completely under the control of occupying forces, establishing a national administration in Anatolia was necessary to prevent the execution of orders coming from Istanbul.
- Taking advantage of national fervor by forming the “Kuva-yı Milliye” (National Forces) and basing the national administration on this movement.
- No longer remaining purely defensive but launching counteroffensives against the aggressive enemies.
War Minister Şevket Turgut Pasha, Cevat Pasha – who replaced Fevzi Pasha as chief of the General Staff – and Fevzi Pasha, now the Inspector of the First Army, took an oath to work together for the salvation of the homeland and not to shy away from any sacrifice in this cause.
While discussing the details of the necessary initiatives for implementing these five decisions, Mustafa Kemal Pasha also joined the meeting. He expressed that he shared the same views and would move to Anatolia to realize these decisions. Cevat Pasha supported the “Kuva-yı Milliye” in Anatolia until he was exiled to Malta by the British. Fevzi Pasha also made significant efforts as chief of the General Staff and Inspector to send soldiers, weapons and munitions to Anatolia. About a year later, when Istanbul was occupied, he crossed into Anatolia and continued the struggle from there.
Official appointment
On April 21, 1919, Gen. Milne, stationed in the Black Sea region on behalf of Britain, delivered a note to the Ottoman Government stating that the unrest in the Black Sea region must be prevented, otherwise the area would be occupied.
In response, the Ottoman Government and the General Staff immediately activated the inspectorate system they had been preparing, and expedited the appointment of Mustafa Kemal Pasha to the inspectorate position. He held meetings in his office with Grand Vizier Damat Ferit Pasha and War Minister Şakir Pasha. Minister of the Interior, Mehmet Ali Bey, and Navy Minister Avni Pasha also visited Mustafa Kemal at his residence in Şişli.
Mustafa Kemal Pasha’s stance against the Unionists, his wartime success that earned him the reputation of the Hero of Anafartalar, his dynamism, passionate personality and his status as an aide-de-camp to the Sultan all helped him stand out among his peers.
On April 29, 1919, Mustafa Kemal Pasha accepted the position of Inspector of the 9th Army Troops. According to the directive given to him, he had the authority to issue orders to civil and administrative personnel across a wide region. The primary duty of the inspectorate was to ensure public order. However, the vision and mission went far beyond that.
We know that along with him, 22 staff officers, 26 soldiers and sergeants boarded the Bandırma ferry. Among this staff team, Chief of Staff Kazım Dirik and Ibrahim Tali Bey were present, as well as Assistant Chief of Staff Arif Bey – a friend from his school years. Hüsrev Bey was appointed as head of the intelligence branch and Refik Saydam Bey served as the medical officer. Mustafa Kemal Pasha’s chief aide-de-camp, Cevat Abbas Bey and aide-de-camp, Muzaffer Bey, were also part of the delegation.
Izmir occupation, massacre
May 15, 1919, went down in Turkish history as a dark stain. Under the protection of a British warship, the Greeks entered the port of Izmir and began the occupation of the city.
When the Efzun Regiment, blessed by Metropolitan Hristotomos, arrived at Konak Square amid the cries of “Zito” from the Greeks, they were met with the first bullet of resistance. The Greeks scattered throughout the city and began a massacre. Over two days, the number of Turks killed in Izmir and its surrounding region reached 2,000.
The Izmir events sounded alarm bells for Istanbul. Mustafa Kemal’s journey was hastened. As before, he met with Sultan Mehmed VI Vahdettin to discuss “the current state of the country and ways to save it.” The Sultan told him, “Pasha, you can save the state!” Mustafa Kemal was given a watch and a pen made of gold as gifts from the Sultan.
Mustafa Kemal spent the night of May 15, his last night in Istanbul, at his home in Şişli with his mother and sister.
Friday, May 16, 1919
On Friday, accompanied by the minister of the Navy, Avni Pasha, and the Chief of General Staff Cevat Pasha, Mustafa Kemal Pasha paid a farewell visit to Sultan Vahdettin.
After leaving, he was granted a visa by the British checkpoint in Istanbul. An Ottoman Pasha had to obtain a visa to travel to his assigned duty area within Ottoman territories.
The Bandırma steamer was headed to the Black Sea, and its captains were experienced with the sea. Capt. Ismail Hakkı and Second Capt. Tahsin Dalay were on duty. The Inspectorate Committee was ready at the Galata Pier. After talking with Rauf Bey and a few others who came to see him off, Mustafa Kemal Pasha shook each of their hands one by one to say goodbye, and the Bandırma steamer set off.
After departing from Galata Pier with its passengers, six horses and one automobile, and when it reached Kavaklar, several Allied officers approached the ship by motorboat to search for ammunition and weapons. When the situation was reported to him by aide-de-camp Muzaffer Bey, Mustafa Kemal Pasha said: “Foolish fellows, we are not carrying weapons or ammunition to Anatolia; we are carrying ideals and faith.”
The journey that started in Istanbul on May 16 ended on the morning of May 19 in Samsun. Mustafa Kemal Pasha and his headquarters disembarked. This three-day journey would produce results significant enough to change the fate of both the passengers and the country.
Historic day as national holiday
The celebration of May 19, 1919, as a national holiday happened later than other holidays. It was first celebrated in 1926 in Samsun under the name “Gazi Day.” Later, when May 19 was accepted by Atatürk as his birthday, it officially gained recognition on May 24, 1935, under the name “Atatürk Day.” The first May 19 celebration, held at Fenerbahçe Stadium, became a sports day with the participation of hundreds of athletes from Galatasaray and Fenerbahçe.
The official declaration of May 19 as a national holiday was made possible with the law dated June 20, 1938, naming it “Youth and Sports Day.” After the military coup on Sept. 12, 1980, the name of May 19 Youth and Sports Day was changed, probably due to 1981 being the 100th anniversary of Atatürk’s birth, to “Atatürk Memorial, Youth and Sports Day.”
With the occasion of the 75th anniversary of the Republic of Türkiye, national holiday celebrations were brought back to the agenda and were accused of being “militaristic.” The shift from “ceremony to celebration” aimed to involve the public, who had so far been mere spectators, in the festivities. Taking possible criticisms like these into account, the Ministry of National Education made regulatory changes in 2012 to make the celebrations more civilian and democratic. The new regulation removed the parade and stadium shows, deciding that celebrations outside Ankara would be held in schools.